Hey on Article XXI: Of the Authority of General Councils

I will endeavour to confine it within bounds suit- able to our present plan, without omitting anything very important — Nothing is more natural to men, than to consult with each other when they are in difficulties. We are led to consultation both by our reason and our feelings. And we may con- ceive that, in teaching the Christian Religion, and adapting it to the various customs of different nations, consultation must be frequently desire- able. We have a memorable instance in the fifteenth chapter of the Acts of the Apostle. Paul and Barnabas were at Antioch; 1t there appeared, that the Jews who favoured Christianity, or were admitted into 1t, could not bring themselves to give

BOOK IV. 1. 95 give up the religion of Moses ; it was divine; th had been brought up in it; it had distinguished them from idolatrous heathens ; nay, they were not contented with retaining it themselves, they thought that even the Heathen converts ought to conform to it: Christianity, they seem to have thought a new and improved species of Fudaism. — Now the Apostle saw, that Christianity was in- tended to supersede Judaism; and that it would be a very great hindrance to the conversion of the Heathens, if they must bear the troublesome bur- dens of the Law of Moses, in favour of which they were by no means prejudiced. To manage so as to lose neither Jewish’ nor Gentile converts, required much prudence: it required consulta- tion: Paul and Barnabas thought it worth while to travel from Antioch to Jerusalem, in order to con- suIt the © Apostles and Elders, with the whole Church,” in so critical a juncture. We have some account of the meeting; James, the Bishop*, seems to have given the final determination.— Here was a genuine consultation z the church was not only c assembled with one accord,” but with one accord they attended to their proper business : their minds pure from indirect motives; from pride, ambition, rivalship, and worldly interest. This meeting has frequently been called the first Council.

As Christianity spread, any assemblies, aiming to collect the sense of Christians at large, must consist of members convened from a greater extent of country: but Masteim tells us, that till the middle of the second Century ©, Churches acted in- dependently of each other, and did not meet together with any such view. He adds, that there

2 Art. vr. Sect. xx v.

d Held A. D. 47, or near; Cave. _ © Mosheim, Cent. 2, Part 2. Chap. 2, Set, 3.

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was no general council till the fourth century“: yet there was a Council held at Antioch in the year 270, against Paul of Samosata, where were present, according to Cave, Bishops innumerable. In proceeding farther, I will first mention some

facts, such as a scholar is supposed to be informed

of, and then make a few remarks. Councils, of one fort or other, have been very numerous; Baxter, in his account, mentions particulars rela- tive to 480.—With regard to the number of gene- ral councils, writers are not agreed; some calling only seven or eight of the Councils general, others eighteen. 11. I will now mention some of the principal councils; that at Vice, was held in the year 325, by order of Constantine the Great, against the Arians; and is always called the fir/ general Coun- cil : that at Constantinople was held in the year 381,

by order of Theodofius the Great, against the

Macedonians :—the third of those, held at Epresus, was very eminent: it was assembled in the year 431, by Theodosius Junior, against Nesorius:— We may add the Council held at Chalcedon in the year 451, by order of the Emperor Marcian, or, in effect perhaps, by the influence of his Empress Pulcheria, on account of the adversary or opponent of Nestorius, Eutyches.— These four are called the

first four general Councils; Gregory the Great com-

pared them to the four Gospels. — The reformed are

| ipoken*® of as having a very high respect for them.

-I must pass from these to some of much later date. The Council of Conflance, which began in 1414, was called with the consent of the* See of Rome, and by means of the Emperor Sigismund; to decide who should be Pope, and against the

Reformers,

4 Cent. 4.2. 2. 1, e Rhemish Test. on Acts xv. 28. f Baxter, page 430, or Chap. 13. :

BOOK IV. AR r. xx I. SECT, 111. 97

Reformers, John Wickliffe and John Huss, and Jerom of Prague. Wickcliffe indeed was dead, but the Council condemned his doctrines, and ordered his bones to be dug up and burnt.— The Council of Bal began in 1431 : it seems to have been agreed upon at the Council of Constance, and to have been assembled by the Emperor and Pope jointly, against the Reformers; particularly against the Bohemians, who had Zisca for their head. But the Council were so afraid of their adversaries as to invite them to defend their notions; a measure which had as much success as might be expected. —The Council of Trent is not mentioned by Baxter or Cave: but we often refer to the Acts of it. From these we see, that it began Dec. 13, 1545; and from the Bulla prefixed, it seems as if Pope Paul III. had relied chiefly on the Emperor Charles V. and Franc:s I. of France. History says*, that the Emperor was very desirous to have the Council continued after the death of Paul III. —The Council was held in order to check the Reformation; its suspensions and interruptions cannot be entered into here.

Of the Synod of Dort I said something in the History of the“ tenth Article.

111. It seems as if our ideas of the Councils now mentioned will be very indefinite and imper- fect, if we do not mention something of the num- bers of persons who have been {aid to be present at each; and the 7ime of its continuance. These are by no means agreed upon, but I shall satisfy my- self with delivering to you the report of any re- spectable author. — The Council of Nice is often called the Council of the 318; that 1s, of 318

| Bishops;

• Mosheim, Cent. 16, Sect. 1. Chap. 4. Sect. 3.

D Art, x. Sect. xv. |

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Bishops; but Lardner shews’, that this number is not by any means to be depended upon. It probably became the favourite number, because it was the number of Abraham’s * servants, by whom he con- quered his enemies. But besides Bishops - we are told, that there were at Nice an incredible num- ber of Presbyters, &c. At Constantinople Cave lays, there were only about 150 Orthodox Bishops, and 36 of those Bishops who were followers of Mace- donius.—About 200 Bishops are said to have been at Ephesus, and 600 at Chalcedon. — For the Council of Confiance I refer to Fox’s’ entertaining account; but the Cardinals and Bishops were allowed to consult at their own homes. Cave does not men- tion the numbers at Ba//®, nor does Baxter; but there are many histories of that Council : it was a confused affair; and the numbers must have varied. At Trent the introduction to the Acts of the Council tells us, that there were 5 Cardinals, besides Legates; 3 Patriarchs, 33 Archbishops, 235 Bishops, 7 Abbots, 7 Generals of Orders, and 146 Divines; and Orators from the Emperor Ferdinand (called Cæsar) tucceflor of Charles V. in 1558, and many European Princes :—but at what time these were present is not said, or whether at any one time. 1V. The duration of the ahove-mentioned Coun- cils was very unequal. The Nicene continued only about two months and a few days. That at Con- stantinople was interrupted, and held at two dif— ferent i Works, Vol. 4. page 187. k Gen. xiv. 14. 1 Acts and Monuments, Vol. 1, page 585. quoted also by Gilpin in his Lives of Reformers.— Hume mentions a larger Council than this, at Placentia, A. D. 1096, called by Pope

Martin II. in the time of William Rufus, in order to deter- mine upon the first Crusade.

= Dupin’s Compend, gives a short and intelligible account of tins Council, |

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BOOK IV. ART. xxI. SECT. v. 99

ferent times. The Ephesine seems to have con- tinued from about the twentieth of June to the beginning of September.—The Council of Chalce- don seems to have begun the 15th of October, and to have ended very early in? November, if not the last day of October. — The Council of Constance lasted between three and four years?; that of Baf* eleven, and the Council of Trent“ eighteen : reckon- ing these two from the first Session to the last; taking no notice of suspensions, interruptions, de- crees for removals, &c. &c. |

General Councils have been of late discontinued; probably from their appearing not to answer their purpose, s.

v. Their Authority has been greatly extolled in words*, chiefly by the Romanists ; but when we enter into particular enquiries about them, they seem very disorderly, in fact, whatever they may be in theory; and they seem to have been fre- quently hostile to the Papal power, and some- times destructive of it in particular Popes.—

And

n The first meeting seems, from Cave, to have been in May, and to have continued till August : the next, to have been in the next year, with rather fewer Bishops. — Dupin’s Compend. says, we should conceive a third Council to have been held. —- Cave’s Hist. Lit. may easily be consulted on any Councils.

o Cave: there are 16 Acts; the first on the Ides of October, the 14th Prid. Kal. Nov.—I do not see a date for the 15th and 16th Acts; but the Histories of the Council seem volumi- nous.

P Cave, as I understand him: Fox says 4 years, Vol. 1. page

82.— lt began Nov, 7, 1414, and ended April 22, 1418. pin Compend.

It began 1431, and ended 1442. Baxter. |

© The first Session is dated Dec. 13, 1545, and the 25th is dated Dec. 4, 1563.

See Rhemists on Acts xv. 28.

Baxter, page 431. 444+ from Acts of the Council of Basil. That Council deposed Pope Eugenius IV : and the Western

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100 BOOK IV. ART. XXI. SECT, vi. vii.

And Popes have also* made free with decrees of Councils.

vi. After mentioning these facts, I may make a few remarks : I mean such as are historical.

The manner of carrying on disputes in the larger Councils, was such as promised no decision. To form, or change, a solid opinion in religion, much nicety of attention 15 requisite; much can- dour, and openness to conviction; but no one came to a council to be convinced; every one took for granted that his own opinion was right, and aimed only at convincing others; or at at- tracting them by eloquence; every one took up every difficult subject with passion; he was shocked at the profaneness and impiety of his adversary ; he felt more horror than doubt. Yet when he was opposed, he was perplexed; but this only served to irritate, not to soften or concihate. Inability to answer*, and clear up a point, never fails to ex- asperate him who attempts? it. And thus would arise expressions of indignation, and in the end furious persecutions. © The beginning“ of strife 15 as when one letteth out water.”

VII. It was a great fault in Councils, that the members of them should be all on one fide of a question : called, not so much to argue as to over- power : considering how absurd this 1s, its fre- quency 1s astonishing : what a number of debates have been held, which were only apparent, or fort

Church was very adverse to the Council of Constantinople, as held in the East; did not reckon it general, if at all valid. u Baxter, page 201. 450. x Some specimens of replies may be seen in Baxter, page 101, &C.—105. Baxter observes, that the effect of Councils has been to

2 Prov. xvil. 14.

of sham debates! expressing uncertainty, whilst every thing was fixed | | VIII. And yet it seems poslible, that, for a time, warm and passionate debates, however un- reasonable, might be void of malice, and corrupt design : inexperience, and thoughtlessness, with religious zeal, might be sufficient to produce them. Good Canons of controversy must be the result of much calm observation, But after a few ages, pride, ambition, a desire of rule, or even interest and selfishness, might insinuate themselves; and mixing with bigotry, or superstition, might gene- rate malice and corruption: then indirect motives would operate, for maintaining a doctrine, or humbling a rival. —-In fact, at the last, through the indujgence and adnuration given to Religion by the ordinary people, these faults did certainly grow to an enormous height, and some persons, even in the most eminent religious stations, became, not wicked men, but monsters in human shape, Nevertheless I am persuaded, that though parti- cular facts may raise our abhorrence, if we take a comprehensive view of all the larger councils to- gether, we mult acknowledge, that great abilities were often exerted 1n carrying them on, and great piety : and that many venerable Prelates and Di- vines must have expoled themselves to great hard- ships merely with a view to promote a grand and solemn meeting for the purpose of settling religious truth, and * unanimity amongst Christian brethren’. 1x, I will close this History with mentioning a few writers on Councils. In the Council of Chal- cedon there is a book referred to called © Codex canonum

Sce Baxter’s account of African Councils, page 73. d A good panegyric on Councils may be seen in Warbarton’z Alliance, 2. 3. 2. or page 198 from Hooker, 1. 2.

G 3

canonumꝰ Ecclesiæ Universe,” which must have been a body of the decrees of only general Coun- cils. I fear we have no such book now, that is genuine, at least; but we have very good collec- tions of Councils: : that by Lallbè is an able work, but there is a finer published at Paris in 1644, in 37 volumes folio. This is the largest I know; the smallest, is Berti’s compendium d. — Bishop Beveridge has written on the subject a work in good esteem; and I have often used a book in one volume folio, by Long. I think Baxter’s book, to which I have now referred, contains some acute observations, and some candid ones; but allow- ance should be made for each man’s particular views and principles.

I have satisfaction in consulting Cave’s Historia Literaria, which gives short accounts of Councils, and at the same time refers to others much longer. Biunius is an author in good repute, but the or1- ginal records of Councils were not so well pre—

1lerved, as to leave no uncertainties or contradic-

tions in the accounts which we have of them at this time. — Some writers you will find, who, though ingenious, are too ludicrous and flippant upon the subject of Councils, for my judgment;

as Voltaire and Dr. Jortin® : these indulge a boyish kind of pertness, which shews, to me, a want of entering into the circumstances of those whom the

ridicule ; that is, in truth, a narrowness of mind.

And indeed not to distinguish between the nature of anything and the abule of it, is always a sign of narrow views, or hasty reflexion; of an in-

temperate c Cave’s Hist. Lit. 1. page 386. 4 The writers on Ecclcf. Hist. Bingham, Cave, &c. refer to a Book called Hitt, Conciliorum, or nearly that. Hume, in his History of England, only quotes Coxcil. Tom. x. There are many accounts of Councils, © Art, 1x, Sect. viii.

temperate love of wit, and a desire to be rather humorous than accurate.

X. Let us now come to the Explanation.

&* General Councils.” A council, in common language, may signify any meeting of persons who consult with each other; but in church-history it seems always to imply some representation; -.and the term is never used for any less significant meet- ing than when delegates are sent from the different churches in a* Diocese. A Diocese was once a very {mall district; but of that another time. If all the Dioceses in a Province send delegates, or representatives, the Council is provincial; and the President is a metropolitan; (tor some one must preside) : if all the Provinces in a Nation, it is Nationals: and if all the Nations us oneuwerns, it is &cumenical, or general; and the President must be elected. In fact, delegates are never lent from all nations of the world; and therefore, according to the strictness of this last definition, there never is, nor has been, a general Council; but people will talk big sometimes; as when a large body of Christians call themselves Cazholics; and we mult

sometimes

The meeting at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) may be called a Coun- cil or not, as we follow or not these definitions. If all Chris- tendom, however small, appeared there, virtually, it might, in some sense, be called a general council, if it was a council at all.

J know no name for the head of a national church, taken independently of the state; our Convocations have had Prolo- eutors, aniwering to the /peakers of the Houses of Lords and Commons. Frimate may be the name; if so, our Archbisho of Canterbury may be Primate as head of the English Church, and Metropolitan as head of a Province. ‘The Archbishop of York is called Primate of England; the Archbishop of Canter- bury Primate of al England. York was once a residence of Roman Emperors: Union of Nations may ( as in Aquitain, &c.) have Jet a title, which now seems too extensive, though it did not when first given.

104 BOOK iv. XI,

sometimes follow them when they quit plain lite- ral language, As we have no council between

national and general, if a Council be composed

of delegates from several nations, and notice be given to others, who are likely to be interested ; it may be called a general Council without much impropriety®. A general council would be the most regularly formed, if each Church was to chule a representative for a meeting of the churches in a Diocese; if each Diocese was to chuse, out of those representatives, a representative for a pro- vincial council; each provincial council one for a National Council; each national council one (or more, according to its extent) for a general coun- cil: then, if all Christian nations sent representa- tives so elected, one does not fee why such general council would not fairly represent the Catholic church.—And if some nations neglected to send, supposing they had proper notice, it would be hard if their negligence could frustrate the undertakings of the rest of the Christian world.

I do not know any difference between Council and Synod, except that the latter is Greek, and the former Latin : the Laws of councils seem always to be called Canons, though that be Greek.

XI. © The Will of Princes,” —suppoled Chris- tian Princes, opposed probably to Popes: in a republic, &c. the sovereign power, - Because gene- ral councils are composed of national councils, and a prince is the head of a nation. It does not follow (whether true or not) that Provincial coun- cils may not be gathered together without consult- ing Princes: some Christian councils were held bctore Constantine became a Christian,

X11. AU

b Cave reasons in order to settle whether the Council of

_ Constantinople against images, in 754, was a general one: {0

do other writers.

X11. All be not governed with the spirit and word of God; — that is, some have sometimes worldly views;—the expressions of our Article are directly opposite to one in the R/emisi Testament ;

—< Holy Counsels” © have ever the assistance of God’s Spirit, and therefore cannot erre,” &c.— And the Council of Chalcedon cry out, © thele are the words of the Holy * Ghost.”

XIII. © Moy err,”—a priori; and a posteriori, «* have erred,” © even in things pertaining unto God: —it was, in 1552, © not only in worldly matters, but also,” &c.; this comparison makes our expression more intelligible; and the change makes our assent more easy: it was a needless trouble to prove that Councils had erred “ in worldly matters :”—worldly matters are not ex- pressed in the Latin of 1552.

Our church respects Councils; though it will found Salvation on the Scriptures : —It says, “ they” sometimes © have erred:” and © things ordained by them as necessary to Salvation,” mult be tried by Scripture ; but this implies, that in anything short of that, Councils ought to be respected. And accordingly, our Homily on fasting, speaks hand- somely of the Council of Chalcedor.

„ Unless it may be declared,” &c. this seems rather obscure; or however less clear than the Latin, “ nisi ostendi possint e sacris literis esse desumpra,” — But if Salvation is to be founded on Scripture, the Councils may seem to have nothing to do wich our principles; yet they may suggest, argue, interpret; and their opinion, when they do so, may afford us light; and is to be attended to,

and

i Rhemists on Acts xv. 28. k Baxter, page 101. page 217, 8vo. - See also Reform. Legum de Summa Tri-

nitate, &c. Cap. 14. which is more clear and full than our Articles,

106 BOOK iv. xXxI V- XVI.

and treated with reverence : it may have weig lit, sometimes great weight, with those who are not qualified to judge.

xiv. We come to our Proof.

There seem but two propositions to be noticed;

xv. General Councils cannot be called without the consent of Princes.

General Councils are made up of Delegates from National Councils; and according to us, the Prince is the head of the national Church. How far the consent of the Sovereign is necessary for a man’s quitting his own country, 1s a matter of National Law; but I think moralists deem such consent neceslary; either express or lacit; at least when subjects travel in any considerable numbers ; * or for ends affecting the State to which they belong. — The Christian religion leaves the political obligations of subjects in their full force. — (Sce Matt. xx11. 15, & —Rom. xiu. 1, &c.)—It tome spiritual Magistrate could call a number of every nation out to a distant region, it must greatly in- terrupt internal Government: and if people so called out could make what rules they pleased about Religion, including discipline, morals, spiri— tual Courts, &c. and the Magistrate at home must execute those rules, he would be thwarted and impeded in some very importaut parts of his ad- ministration.

xVI. General Councils have erred. —If we give any farther proof of this than has already appeared, it will he 4 the sake of reflecting on the History of the Church. Indeed it would be sufficient if we proved that Romanists must own general Coun- cils to have erred, for our present Article 1s only against the Romanists: and in this view, we might repeat what was before said about Councils

deposing

m Section v.

deposing Popes, and Popes neglecting Councils. And we might add the instance of Pope Honorius, who was deposed as a Monothelite by the general council of Constantinople in the seventh Century“. General Councils have contradifed® each other, in which case one must err; that at Rimini was? at last Arian. And I fear, if we examined the first four, we should not find them all free from error. Lardner does not find the Council of Nice such as he approves; chiefly with regard to toleration,— As I remember, it orders people to fand durin prayer; a small error perhaps: the Papifts ! think it sets the churches of Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch too high.

For the first general Council of Constantiuople we may refer to Gregory * of Nazianzum, or to the expostulations of the Bishop of Rome : it was noisy and disorderly, and ambitious to have all church-business done in the“ East. — I do not

scruple to say, that the general council of Ephesus erred in treating Nestorius* with too great severity. —-The riot and warm opposition of John of An- tioch; the calling in of a military force; fraud, prison, banishment, all these may be said not to be chargeable upon the Council; they were not likely to make the Council free from error ; riots in any assembly are always a disgrace to it, and a great hindrance to right decisions, though rioters can n Art. 11 Sect. x. -

o Long’s Councils, page 266.—Baxter on Councils, page gg. 445, or compare page 98. Sect 9, with page 100, Sect. 17: and the Council at Constantinople in 754, with the second

Nicene Council in 787, about images. — dee also Bishop Por- teus’s Brief Confutation, page 30.

p Bennet on the Article.

4 Baxter, page 67, 69,—Gibbon, Vol, 3. (contents) r Baxter, page 70. Sect. 11.

And sce Baxter, page 94. Set. 20. and Art, 11, Sect. viite

108 BOOK iv. ,

can never be all on one side.— The Council of Chalcedon was a scene of contention, as far as con- cerned the Eutychians; the claims made at it are scarcely intelligible ; and the Legates of the Pope protested against the eighteenth canon. The Euty- chian debate in that Council was curious enough; no one knew how to oppose Eutyches without favouring Nestorius, who had been deposed at Ephesus; nor therefore without condemning the preceding general Council; this difficulty I can conceive to have been the occasion of irritating and exasperating the Fathers, and fo, of much riot and disorder, both before and at the Council of Chalcedon. The difference between Nestorius and Eutyches (if any“, at bottom) was so subtle and refined, that no one cculd explain himself clearly upon 1t.

Here Bishop Porteus’s chapter“ might be intro- duced,

xXV11. I will carry the Proof no farther, but see what can be laid in the way of Application. No new form of affent seems *tanting.— And I doubt whether any proposals of mutual concessions would be effeAual, so bigotted is Du Pin? in this matter. Except indeed he means, that supposing a general council such as it , be, it would be absurd for a private man to set up his own judgment against it; i he means this, we might agree with him. And the chief part of what 1s said in order to inculcate a veneration for general councils, is derived from

their

t Cave, 1. 485. Its design was, to make the Bishop of Con- stantinople equal to the Bishop of Rome, Constantinople being new Rome. The breach this occasioned between East and Hg has never been healed to this day. Baxter, page 70,

u Baxter, page 102.

• Brief Confutation, Part 1. Chap. 6.

Appendix to Mosheim, as before.

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BOOK IV. XVII, tog

their nature, and excludes all supposition of their being abused. —Burt if we speak of General Councils as what they have been in fact, it seems to me that Papists have full as much reason to dec’are them fallible, as Protestants.

As to Improvement, the idea of improving general councils is quite simple; take away their farts, and they are improved, and useful. A council of Christians literally general, seems scarcely attainable in our age, because the Greek Church must be ad- mitted to it, as allo Asiatic and African churches ; though anything might be done by carrying repre- sentation far enough, or, what means the same, by reducing the number of representatives.

Yet we can scarce conceive, that in act a small number of representatives would be allowed to bind the universal Church, without having their acts ratified by their constituents : and such ratifi- cation would consume so much time, as, in man cases, to render the Councils useless. Indeed the time spent merely in the 2 of very distant representatives fo the place of meeting would make an insuperable difficulty, What would be the case if we supposed both America and Alfa wholly Christian ?

No Council would be so bad now as some were when the Clergy were ignorant and profligate; but we are not yet arrived at a manner of dis- puting productive of mutual conviction; let con- troversy then be improved and humanized; by our writings let us shew, that we are fi to meet - And then, let our councils at first be small; and let them be enlarged as we find them produce unanimity.

If we could thus proceed on till there was a probability of some good from consulting with

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